Nama : Shinta Pujha Chaterine
NIM : 4101415002
Prodi : Pendidikan Matematika 2015 FMIPA UNNES
Rombel : 122
Foto ini diikutsertakan dalam festival parikan, tari dan senam
konservasi di Universitas Negeri Semarang, pada berita lp3.unnes.ac.id
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#UniversitasNegeriSemarang
| Woman And Islamic Dress |
ISLAMIC DRESSMost Muslim women today do not wear a full face veil. It is more common to see women in hijab, loose clothing topped by a type of scarf worn around the head and under the chin. Women don't share a common style nor have the same reasons for wearing hijab. For many it reflects the belief that they are following God's commandments, are dressing according to "the correct standard of modesty," or simply are wearing the type of traditional clothes they feel comfortable in.
A Complex History of the Veil
What constitutes modest clothing has changed over time. Like most customs, what women wear has reflected the practices of a region and the social position of the wearer. The veil itself predates Islam by many centuries. In the Near East, Assyrian kings first introduced both the seclusion of women in the royal harem and the veil. Prostitutes and slaves, however, were told not to veil, and were slashed if they disobeyed this law.
Beyond the Near East, the practice of hiding one's face and largely living in seclusion appeared in classical Greece, in the Byzantine Christian world, in Persia, and in India among upper caste Rajput women. Muslims in their first century at first were relaxed about female dress. When the niece of Aishah Bint Abu Bakr (the Prophet’s wife), Aisha bint Talha was asked by her husband Musab to veil her face, she answered, "Since the Almighty hath put on me the stamp of beauty, it is my wish that the public should view the beauty and thereby recognized His grace unto them. On no account, therefore, will I veil myself."
As Islam reached other lands, regional practices, including the covering of women, were adopted by the early Muslims. Yet it was only in the second Islamic century that the veil became common, first used among the powerful and rich as a status symbol. The Qu'ranic prescription to "draw their veils over their bosoms" became interpreted by some as an injunction to veil one's hair, neck and ears.
Throughout Islamic history only a part of the urban classes were veiled and secluded. Rural and nomadic women, the majority of the population, were not. For a woman to assume a protective veil and stay primarily within the house was a sign that her family had the means to enable her to do so.
Since nomad women rarely veiled, in the early stages of those Islamic countries with nomadic roots, women often were allowed to go unveiled, even in town. In the years of the early Safavid dynasty, women were unveiled, although the custom was changed by late Safavid times. Among the Turks, who came into Anatolia as nomads, Ibn Battuta in the fourteenth century saw what he called a "remarkable thing. The Turkish women do not veil themselves. Not only royal ladies but also wives of merchants and common people will sit in a wagon drawn by horses. The windows are open and their faces are visible."
The Middle Ages
The veil did not appear as a common rule to be followed until around the tenth century. In the Middle Ages numerous laws were developed which most often placed women at a greater disadvantage than in earlier times. In some periods, such as under the Mamluks in Egypt, repeated decrees were issued, urging strictness in veiling and arguing against the right of women to take part in activities outside their home. One commentator, Ibn al-Hajj, claimed this was a good thing because a woman in Cairo would "go out in the streets as if she were a shining bride, walking in the middle of the road and jostling men." He cautioned shop keepers to be careful when a woman came in to buy, "for if she was one of those women dressed up in delicate clothes, exposing her wrists, he should leave the selling transaction and give her his back until she leaves the shop peacefully..."
The Nineteenth Century
By the second half of the nineteenth century, intellectuals, reformers, and liberals began to denounce the idea of women's protective clothing. This group was sensitive about the advances western nations had made, and wanted to push their countries toward a more western-style society. One way of achieving this, they felt, was to change the status of women. To them this meant abandoning traditional customs, including protective covering and the veil which they saw as a symbol of the exclusion of women from public life and education.
In the early years, men were in the forefront of this effort. Qasim Amin, who in 1899 wrote The Emancipation of Woman, called for new interpretations of the Quran with regard to limited divorce, polygamy, and wearing the veil. He argued that such practices had nothing to do with Islam, but were a result of customs of peoples who had become Muslims. Enormous debate followed his work. Some of his detractors were women. Egyptian writer Malak Hifni Nassef worried about women "moving from that dark and familiar state" before they were ready. She said that first women needed a "true" education and better knowledge of the world, and men needed to learn not to harass unveiled women. She resented men telling women what they should do: "If he orders us to veil, we veil, and if he now demands that we unveil, we unveil. There is no doubt that he has erred grievously against us in decreeing our rights in the past and no doubt that he errs grievously in decreeing our rights now."
The Impact of Nationalism
The ideas of Qasim Amin reflected those who closely linked the emancipation of women and rejection of veiling to national movements for independence. For this group, the changing roles of women in society were important ways to convince the overseas colonial rulers that their subject nations were ready to govern themselves. Women were encouraged to be symbols of the new state. Those who resisted these ideas of social progress were mocked. Turkish elites, for example, mocked women covered in black, calling them "beetles." Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, who began to build a secular nation-state in 1923, denounced the veil, calling it demeaning and a hindrance to civilized nation. But he did not outlaw it. Shortly after, in Iran in the 1930s, Reza Shah Pahlevi did, issuing a proclamation banning the veil outright. For many women, this decree in its suddenness was not liberating but frightening. Some refused to leave home for fear of having their veil torn from their face by the police.
Male leaders of nationalist movements encouraged women to join them and appear more freely in public. Slowly some women did. In 1910, a young Turkish woman attracted attention by daring to have herself photographed. At about the same time, educated women in Turkey began to leave the house unveiled, but still wearing hijab. The most dramatic public unveiling was undertaken by Huda Shaarawi in Egypt in 1923. Following suit were Ibtihaj Kaddura in Lebanon, Adila Abd al-Qudir al-Jazairi in Syria, and much later Habibah Manshari in Tunis. Moroccan scholar Fatima Mernissi remembers the fight her mother had with her father about replacing her heavier traditional veil with "a tiny triangular black veil made of sheer silk chiffon. This drove Father crazy: 'It is so transparent! You might as well go unveiled!' But soon the small veil, the litham, became the fashion, with all the nationalists' wives wearing it all over Fez - to gatherings in the mosque and to public celebrations, such as when political prisoners were liberated by the French."
Women's organizations also played an important role in transforming dress, although this was a minor issue in their struggle for women's political rights and for legal reforms. It should be stressed that for many women it was not the fact of wearing the veil that was the issue, but that the veil symbolized the relegation of women to a secluded world that did not allow them to participate in public affairs...
Revival of Hijab
As the century progressed, a revival of veiling and introduction of more modest dress reasserted itself. Opposition to Islamic required clothing had never been truly universal. Among the lower middle classes it had always tended to be defended in the face of change. Even in Turkey where the state had pushed the idea of reform, new ideas and styles of dress did not reach women in the hinterland.
In areas where Islam was resisted and believers felt threatened, like Indonesia and the Philippines, Muslim women began to dress more conservatively as a way to assert who they were. During militant struggles for independence, such as that against the French in Algeria or the British in Egypt, some women purposely kept the veil in defiance of western styles. It meant they also could take part in veiled and silent demonstrations, or could hide weapons under long robes.
There were other reasons for taking up and defending hijab. One was the growing reaffirmation of nation identity and rejection of values and styles seen as western. In response to Egypt's catastrophic loss to Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War, and the seeming failure of secularism, there also was a push to return to Islamic laws which had been abandoned. Modernization was seen as negative, a phenomena which encouraged people to reject not only Islamic but all indigenous traditions. Wearing hijab came to symbolize not the inferiority of the culture in comparison to western ways, but its uniqueness and superiority.
The real surge toward donning hijab came with Iran's revolution. Women were seen as key elements in achieving changes in public morality and private behavior. Unveiled women were mocked, called unchaste "painted dolls," and were punished if they appeared in public without proper covering. In countries beyond Iran in the 1970s, demonstrations and sit-ins appeared over opposition to the required western style dress code for university students and civil servants.
Today
With the trend to revive or create Islamist movements, women have continued to take up the modest covering of the hijab. Within women's groups the debate over its use also continues. Some progressive groups, such as the Women's Action Forum (WAF) in Pakistan, explicitly condemn all attempts to impose a dress code on women. They argue that those who do not conform to it are stigmatized. They say that it denies women the freedom to decide on their own appearance. Women's groups endorsing a strict interpretations of Islam, on the other hand, aggressively promote dress codes, putting out information sheets listing its requirements...
For women wishing to pursue professional and public social lives, wearing hijab allows freer movement outside the confines of the home. In leaving their homes, this upwardly mobile group is actually defining new roles for themselves, not defending traditional ones. In the same way, students who take up hijab are able to move into areas that were once closed to them, such as attending classes, discussion groups and religious activities. Wearing conservative clothing protects them from sexual harassment and objectification. An Iranian school girl states, "We want to stop men from treating us like sex objects, as they have always done. We want them to ignore our appearance and to be attentive to our personalities and mind. We want them to take us seriously and treat us as equals and not just chase us around for our bodies and physical looks."
Sappho (c
570 BC) One of the first published female writers. Much of her poetry
has been lost but her immense reputation has remained. Plato referred to
Sappho as one of the great 10 poets.
Cleopatra (69
– 30 BC) The last Ptolemaic ruler of Egypt. Cleopatra sought to defend
Egypt from the expanding Roman Empire. In doing so she formed
relationships with two of Rome’s most powerful leaders Marc Anthony and
Julius Caesar.
Mary Magdalene (4
BC – 40AD) Accounts from the Gospels and other sources suggest Mary
Magdalene was one of Jesus’ most devoted followers. Mary Magdalene stood
near Jesus at his crucifixion and was the first to see his
resurrection.
Boudicca (1st
Century AD) Boudicca was an inspirational leader of the Britons. She
led several tribes in revolt against the Roman occupation. Initially
successful her army of 100,000 sacked Colchester and then London. Her
army was later defeated.
Hildegard of Bingen (1098
– 1179) Mystic, author and composer. Hildegard of Bingen lived a
withdrawn life, spending most of her time behind convent walls. However
her writings, poetry and music were revelatory for the time period. She
was consulted by Popes, Kings and influential people of the time. Her
writings and music have influenced people to this day.
Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122
– 1204) The first Queen of France. Two of her sons Richard and John
went on to become Kings of England. Educated, beautiful and highly
articulate, Eleanor influenced the politics of western Europe through
her alliances and influence over her sons.
Joan of Arc (1412
– 1431) The patron saint of France, Joan of Arc inspired a French
revolt against the occupation of the English. An unlikely heroine; at
the age of just 17, the diminutive Joan successfully led the French to
victory at Orleans. Her later trial and martyrdom only heightened her
mystique.
Mirabai (1498-1565)
Indian mystic and poet. Mirabai was born into a privileged Hindu
family, but she forsook the expectations of a princess and spent her
time as a mystic and devotee of Krishna. She helped revitalise the
tradition of bhakti (devotional) yoga in India.
St Teresa of Avila (1515
– 1582) Spanish mystic, poet and Carmelite reformer. St Teresa of
Avila lived through the Spanish inquisition but avoided been placed on
trial despite her mystical revelations. She helped to reform the
tradition of Catholicism and steer the religion away from fanaticism.
Catherine de Medici (1519
– 1589) Born in Florence, Italy, Catherine was married to the King of
France at the age of 14. She was involved in interminable political
machinations seeking to increase the power of her favoured sons. This
led to the disastrous St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre.
Elizabeth I (1533 – 1603) Queen
of England during a time of great economic and social change, she saw
England cemented as a Protestant country. During her reign she witnessed
the defeat of the Spanish Armada leaving Britain to later become one of
the world’s dominant superpowers.
Catherine the Great (1729
– 1796) One of the greatest political leaders of the Eighteenth
Century. Catherine the great was said to have played an important role
in improving the lot of the Russian serfs. She placed great emphasis on
the arts and helped to cement Russia as one of the dominant countries in
Europe.
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759 – 1797) English author, Wollstonecraft wrote the most significant book in the early feminist movement. Her tract “A Vindication of the Rights of Women”
laid down a clear moral and practical basis for extending human and
political rights to women. – A true pioneer in the struggle for female
suffrage.
Jane Austen (1775 – 1817) – One
of the most popular female authors Jane Austen wrote several novels,
which remain highly popular today. These include “Pride and Prejudice”
“Emma” and “Northanger Abbey”. Jane Austen wrote at a time when female
writers were not so high profile, helping pave the way for future
writers.
Margaret Fuller (1810 – 1850) An American women’s rights advocate. Her book Women in the Nineteenth Century
(1845) was influential in changing perceptions about men and women, and
was one of the most important early feminist works. She argued for
equality and women being more self-dependent and less dependent on men.
Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811 – 1896) A
life long anti slavery campaigner. Her novel “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” was a
best seller and helped to popularise the anti slavery campaign. Abraham
Lincoln would later remark her books were a major factor behind the
American civil war.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
(1815 – 1902) American social activist and leading figure in the early
women’s rights movement. She was a key figure in helping create the
early women’s suffrage movements in the US. She was the principle author
of ‘Declaration of Sentiments’ in 1848.
Queen Victoria (1819 – 1901) – British
Queen. Presiding over one of the largest empires ever seen, Queen
Victoria was the head of state from 1837-1901.Queen Victoria sought to
gain an influence in British politics whilst remaining aloof from party
politics. She came to symbolise a whole era of Victorian values.
Florence Nightingale
(1820 – 1910) British nurse. By serving in the Crimean war, Florence
Nightingale was instrumental in changing the role and perception of the
nursing profession. Her dedicated service won widespread admiration and
led to a significant improvement in the treatment of wounded soldiers.
Susan B. Anthony
(1820 – 1906) American Campaigner against slavery and for the promotion
of women’s and workers rights. She began campaigning within the
temperance movement and this convinced her of the necessity for women to
have the vote. She toured the US giving countless speeches on the
subjects of human rights.
Emily Dickinson (1830
– 1886) One of America’s greatest poets Emily Dickinson lived most of
her life in seclusion. Her poems were published posthumously and
received widespread literary praise for their bold and unconventional
style. Her poetic style left a significant legacy on 20th Century
poetry.
Emmeline Pankhurst (1858
– 1928) British suffragette, Emily Pankhurst dedicated her life to the
promotion of women’s rights. She explored all avenues of protest
including violence, public demonstrations and hunger strikes. She died
in 1928, 3 weeks before a law giving all women over 21 the right to
vote.
Marie Curie (1867
– 1934) – Polish / French scientist. Curie was the first women to
receive the Nobel Prize and the first person to win the Nobel Prize for
two separate categories. Her first award was for research into
radioactivity (Physics 1903). Her second Nobel prize was for Chemistry
in 1911. A few years later she also helped develop the first X ray
machines.
Emily Murphy (1868 – 1933) – The
first women magistrate in the British Empire. In 1927 she joined forces
with four other Canadian women who sought to challenge an old Canadian
law that said, “women should not be counted as persons”
Helen Keller (1880
– 1968) American social activist. At the age of 19 months Helen became
deaf and blind. Overcoming the frustration of losing both sight and
hearing she campaigned tirelessly on behalf of deaf and blind people.
Coco Chanel (1883-1971)
– French fashion designer. One of the most innovative fashion
designers, Coco Chanel was instrumental in defining feminine style and
dress during the 20th Century. Her ideas were revolutionary; in
particular she often took traditionally male clothes and redesigned them
for the benefit of women.
Eleanor Roosevelt (1884
– 1962) Wife and political aide of American president F.D.Roosevelt.
In her own right Eleanor made a significant contribution to the field of
human rights, a topic she campaigned upon throughout her life. As head
of UN human rights commission she helped to draft the 1948 UN
declaration of human rights.
Annie Besant (1847-1933)
– British campaigner for social justice, an advocate of women’s rights
and later member of the Theosophist society. She also actively
campaigned for Indian independence.
Katharine Hepburn (1907 – 2003) American actress. – An
iconic figure of twentieth Century film Katharine Hepburn won four
Oscars and received over twelve Oscar nominations. Her lifestyle was
unconventional for the time and through her acting and life she helped
redefine traditional views of women’s role in society.
Simone de Beauvoir (1908 – 1986) – French
existentialist philosopher. Simone de Beauvoir developed a close
personal and intellectual relationship with Jean Paul Satre. Her book
“The Second Sex” depicted the traditions of sexism that dominated
society and history. It was a defining book for the feminist movement.
Mother Teresa (1910 – 1997) – Albanian
nun/ charity work. Devoting her life to the service of the poor and
dispossessed Mother Teresa became a global icon for selfless service to
others. Through her Missionary of Charities organisation she personally
cared for thousands of sick and dying people in Calcutta. She was
awarded the Nobel Peace prize in 1979.
Dorothy Hodgkin (1910
– 1994) British chemist. Hodgkin was awarded the Nobel prize for her
work on critical discoveries of the structure of both penicillin and
later insulin. These discoveries led to significant improvements in
health care. An outstanding chemist, Dorothy also devoted a large
section of her life to the peace movement and promoting nuclear
disarmament.
Rosa Parks (1913
– 2005) – American civil rights activist. Rosa Parks’ refusal to give
up her bus seat in Montgomery, Alabama, indirectly led to some of the
most significant civil rights legislation of American history. She
sought to play down her role in the civil rights struggle but for her
peaceful and dignified campaigning she became one of the most well
respected figures in the civil rights movements.
(1926
– ) Since ascending to the British throne in 1952, Elizabeth has served
as the second longest serving British monarch. She has witnessed rapid
social and economic change and has been a unifying influence for Britain
and the Commonwealth.
Millicent Fawcett (1846 – 1929) – A
leading suffragist and campaigner for equal rights for women. She led
Britain’s biggest suffrage organisation, the non-violent (NUWSS) and
played a key role in gaining women the vote. She also helped found
Newnham College, Cambridge.
Billie Holiday (1915
– 1959) – American jazz singer. Given the title “First Lady of the
Blues” Billie Holiday was widely considered to be the greatest and most
expressive jazz singer of all time. Her voice was moving in its
emotional intensity and poignancy. Despite dying at the age of only 44,
Billie Holiday helped define the jazz era and her recordings are widely
sold today.
Indira Gandhi (1917 – 1984) – First
female prime minister of India. She was in power from between 1966-77
and 1980-84. Accused of authoritarian tendencies she only narrowly
avoided a military coup by agreeing to hold an election at the end of
the “emergency period” of 1977. She was assassinated in 1984 by her Sikh
bodyguards, in response to her storming of the Golden Temple.
Eva Peron (1919 – 1952) – Eva
Peron was widely loved by the ordinary people of Argentina. She
campaigned tirelessly for both the poor and for the extension of women’s
rights. She died aged only 32 in 1952.
Betty Friedan (1921
– 2006) – American social activist and leading feminist figure of the
1960s; she wrote the best-selling book “The Feminine Mystique” Friedan
campaigned for an extension of female rights and an end to sexual
discrimination.
Margaret Thatcher (1925
– 2013) The first female Prime minister of Great Britain, she governed
for over 10 years, putting emphasis on individual responsibility and a
belief in free markets.
Marilyn Monroe (1926
– 1962) American actress who became one of the most iconic film
legends. Her films were moderately successful, but her lasting fame came
through her photogenic good looks and aura of glamour and
sophistication.
Anne Frank (1929
– 1945) – Dutch / Jewish author. Anne Frank’s diary is one of the most
widely read books in the world. It reveals the thoughts of a young, yet
surprisingly mature 13-year-old girl, confined to a secret hiding place.
“Despite everything, I believe that people are really good at heart.”
Audrey Hepburn (1929 – 1993) -
British actress. Influential female actor of the 1950s and 60s. Audrey
Hepburn defined feminine glamour and dignity, and was later voted as
most beautiful women of the twentieth century. After her acting career
ended in the mid 1960s, she devoted the remaining period of her life to
humanitarian work with UNICEF.
Germaine Greer (1939
– ) Australian feminist icon of the 1960s and 1970s, Germaine Greer
enjoys raising contentious issues. In particular her book “The Female
Eunuch” was a defining manifesto for the feminist movement, which proved
influential in the 1960s.
Wangari Maathai
(1940 – 2011 ) Kenyan born environmentalist, pro-democracy activist and
women’s rights campaigner. Awarded Nobel Peace Prize for efforts to
prevent conflict through protection of scarce resources.
Betty Williams (1943
– ) Together with Mairead Corrigan, Betty Williams campaigned to bring
an end to the sectarian violence of Northern Ireland. They founded the
Community for Peace and were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1977 (post
dated for 1976)
Billie Jean King (1943
– ) American tennis player. Billie Jean King was one of the greatest
female tennis champions, who also battled for equal pay for women. She
won 67 professional titles including 20 titles at Wimbledon.
Shirin Ebadi (1947-
) An Iranian lawyer, Ebadi has fought for human rights in Iran –
representing political dissidents and founding initiatives to promote
democracy and human rights. Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2003.
Benazir Bhutto (1953
– 2007) The first female prime minister of a Muslim country. She helped
to move Pakistan from a dictatorship to democracy becoming Prime
Minister in 1988. She sought to implement social reforms, in particular
helping women and the poor. She was assassinated in 2007.
Oprah Winfrey (1954
– ) – American chat show host. Oprah Winfrey was the first women to own
her own talk show host. Her show and book club are very influential,
focusing on issues facing American women.
Madonna (1958
– ) American pop star. Madonna is the most successful female musician
of all time. She has sold in excess of 250 million records. She has also
starred in films, such as Evita.
Diana, Princess of Wales (1961-1997) - British
Royal princess who was noted for her humanitarian charity work. Despite
troubled marriage to Prince Charles, she was popular for her natural
sympathy with the poor and marginalised from society.
J.K.Rowling (1965
– ) British author of the phenomenal best selling Harry Potter series.
The volume of sales was so high, it has been credited with leading a
revival of reading by children. She wrote the first book as a single
mother, struggling to make ends meet, but is now one of most successful
self-made woman.
Tegla Loroupe
(1973 – ) Kenyan athlete. Loroupe held the women’s marathon world
record and won many prestigious marathons. Since retiring from running,
she has devoted herself to various initiatives promoting peace,
education and women’s rights. In her native Kenya, her Peace Race and
Peace Foundation have been widely praised for helping to end tribal
conflict.
Malala Yousafzai (1997
– ) Pakistani schoolgirl who defied threats of the Taliban to campaign
for the right to education. She survived being shot in the head by the
Taliban and has become a global advocate for women’s rights, especially
the right to education.
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